Finally, we found evidence for large-scale genomic rearrangements that are closely associated with transposable element expansions. We identified hundreds of cephalopod-specific genes, many of which showed elevated expression levels in such specialized structures as the skin, the suckers and the nervous system. Extensive messenger RNA editing generates transcript and protein diversity in genes involved in neural excitability, as previously described, as well as in genes participating in a broad range of other cellular functions. The core developmental and neuronal gene repertoire of the octopus is broadly similar to that found across invertebrate bilaterians, except for massive expansions in two gene families previously thought to be uniquely enlarged in vertebrates: the protocadherins, which regulate neuronal development, and the C2H2 superfamily of zinc-finger transcription factors. We found no evidence for hypothesized whole-genome duplications in the octopus lineage. To investigate the molecular bases of cephalopod brain and body innovations, we sequenced the genome and multiple transcriptomes of the California two-spot octopus, Octopus bimaculoides. They have the largest nervous systems among the invertebrates and present other striking morphological innovations including camera-like eyes, prehensile arms, a highly derived early embryogenesis and a remarkably sophisticated adaptive colouration system. 8 1] Okinawa Institute of Science and Technology Graduate University, Onna, Okinawa 9040495, Japan Department of Molecular and Cell Biology, University of California, Berkeley, California 94720, USA Department of Energy Joint Genome Institute, Walnut Creek, California 94598, USA.Ĭoleoid cephalopods (octopus, squid and cuttlefish) are active, resourceful predators with a rich behavioural repertoire.7 1] Department of Organismal Biology and Anatomy, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois 60637, USA Department of Neurobiology, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois 60637, USA.6 Okinawa Institute of Science and Technology Graduate University, Onna, Okinawa 9040495, Japan.5 1] Okinawa Institute of Science and Technology Graduate University, Onna, Okinawa 9040495, Japan Department of Molecular and Cell Biology, University of California, Berkeley, California 94720, USA.4 Department of Neurobiology, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois 60637, USA.3 Department of Molecular and Cell Biology, University of California, Berkeley, California 94720, USA.2 1] Okinawa Institute of Science and Technology Graduate University, Onna, Okinawa 9040495, Japan Centre for Organismal Studies, University of Heidelberg, 69117 Heidelberg, Germany.1 Department of Organismal Biology and Anatomy, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois 60637, USA.One heart circulates blood around the body, while the other two pump it past the gills, to pick up oxygen. If the blood (called haemolymph in invertebrates) becomes deoxygenated - when the animal dies, for example - it loses its blue colour and turns clear instead.Īn octopus's three hearts have slightly different roles. The copper-based protein is more efficient at transporting oxygen molecules in cold and low-oxygen conditions, so is ideal for life in the ocean. Well, the blue blood is because the protein, haemocyanin, which carries oxygen around the octopus's body, contains copper rather than iron like we have in our own haemoglobin. Finally, why do octopuses have blue blood?Īre you still wondering why octopus blood is blue and what the three hearts do? The researchers say they're not sure what the benefits of living in a densely populated settlement are for these octopuses, but it may just be a case of necessity, with limited den spaces available in the otherwise flat and featureless area.
Frequent aggression, chases and even den evictions were observed among the octopuses living at Octlantis. City living has its advantages and drawbacks, as we all know.
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